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Table 1 Included studies

From: Epidemiology of eating disorders: population, prevalence, disease burden and quality of life informing public policy in Australia—a rapid review

Author

Country

N

Population

Aim

Design

Outcome measure

Abebe et al. [28]

Norway

3844

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To investigate age trends and gender difference in binge eating, purging and non-purging compensatory behaviours (CB) and the relationship of such behaviours to psychosocial problems

Longitudinal (< 5 years)

Binge eating, compensatory behaviours, purging

Ackard et al. [15]

USA

1040

Inpatient (Adult, Women)

To identify changes in the past 2 decades in the prevalence of middle-aged (MA; 40 + years) and young-adult (YA; 18–39 years) women seeking treatment for an eating disorder (ED) and to identify differences and similarities between both groups

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of eating disorder admissions by admission age from 1989 to 2006

Agh et al. [29]

Worldwide

69

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To perform a systematic review of the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and economic burdens of anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorder (BED)

Review (Systematic)

Health related quality of life (HRQoL) and economic burdens of AN, BN, and BED

Allen et al. [30]

Australia

1383

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To compare the prevalence, stability, and psychosocial correlates of DSM–IV–TR and DSM-5 eating disorders, in a population-based sample of male and female adolescents followed prospectively from 14 to 20 years of age

Longitudinal (< 5 years)

Prevalence of DSM-5 AN, BED. BN, other eating disorder, OSFED (“other” eating disorders), EDNOS (Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified)

Austin et al. [31]

USA

13,795

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To describe patterns of purging and binge eating from early through late adolescence in female and male youth across a range of sexual orientations

Longitudinal (< 5 years )

Prevalence of purging and binge eating by sexual orientation

Baiano et al. [32]

Italy

80

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To analyze health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in subgroups of eating disorder (ED) patients by using the brief version of WHOQoL questionnaire (WHOQoL-BREF) before treatment administration

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Health-related quality of life (HRQoL)

Baker and Runfola [33]

N/A

N/A

N/A

To provide an overview of the prevalence and challenges of midlife EDs and related symptomatology

Review (Narrative)

Prevalence of eating disorder diagnoses and binge-eating behaviours

Bould et al. [34]

Sweden

158,697

Community (Children, All Genders)

To investigate whether parental eating disorders (ED) predict ED in children, using a large multigeneration register-based sample

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Parental eating disorder; eating disorder

Bourne et al. [35]

Worldwide

77

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To systematically assess the extent and nature of the avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) literature

Review (Systematic)

Prevalence, clinical outcomes and characteristics of ED

Bryant-Waugh, [36]

N/A

1

Outpatient (Young People, Men)

To summarize current knowledge and clinical practice relating to ARFID in youth

Case Study

Knowledge and clinical practice relating to ARFID

Bueno et al. [37]

Spain

855

Inpatient (Adult, All Genders)

To compare the severity of eating disorders, eating disorder subtype, and personality profiles in a clinical sample of consecutively assessed women with eating disorders with later age of onset (LAO ≥ 25 years) to women with typical age of onset (TAO < 25 years)

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Symptomology of eating disorders patients with late (late age onset ≥ 25 years) versus typical age of onset

Burke et al. [38]

USA

145,379

Community (Young Adult, All Genders)

To examine prevalence estimates of ED pathology across several distinct multiracial groups, to contrast prevalence estimates of ED pathology in each multiracial group with those among the corresponding monoracial identities, and to investigate these findings inter sectionally with gender identity

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence estimates of ED pathology

Burt et al. [39]

Australia

6052

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To estimate the prevalence of eating disorders amongst First Australians at the diagnostic threshold level and to compare clinical features and health related quality of life (HRQoL) in First and other Australians with and without an eating disorder

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of ED; clinical features and health related quality of life

Calzo et al. [8]

Worldwide

52

N/A

To summarize trends and key findings from empirical studies conducted between 2011 and 2017 regarding eating disorders and disordered weight and shape control behaviours among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and other sexual minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) populations

Review (Systematic)

Sexual orientation disparities in eating disorder risk

Calzo et al. [40]

UK

5048

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To determine the associations of sexual orientation and eating disorder symptoms among adolescents in the UK

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

ED symptoms, body dissatisfaction

Carta et al. [41]

Italy

4999

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To evaluate the prevalence of eating disorders in an Italian community sample as well as to measure the burden of the quality of life of people and to compare it to those attributable to other chronic illnesses

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of ED; quality of life

Ng et al. [42]

England

2870

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To investigate: (a) the association of eating disorders with childhood sexual abuse and recent stressful life events; (b) the coexistence of eating disorders and other common psychiatric disorders; and (c) the impact of eating disorders on obesity, medical conditions, and health service utilization

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

12-Month prevalence of eating disorders; psychosocial risk factors; psychiatric disorder, physical health

Compte et al. [43]

Argentina

472

College (Adult, All Genders)

To assess the prevalence of eating disorder (ED) and muscle dysmorphia (MD) in male university students of Buenos Aires

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of eating disorders and muscle dysmorphia

Conceicao et al. [44]

Portugal

342

Community (Adult, Women)

To examine the point prevalence of eating disorders and picking/nibbling in elderly women

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of DSM-5 eating disorders and picking/nibbling in elderly women

Cooney et al. [45]

Canada

386

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To determine the incidence of ARFID and describe the clinical and psychological characteristics of young people with ARFID undergoing eating disorder assessment in a tertiary care eating disorder program

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Clinical and psychological features of avoidant/restrictive intake disorder

Cossrow et al. [46]

USA

22,397

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To estimate binge eating disorder (BED) prevalence according to DSM-5 and DSM-IV-TR criteria in US adults and to estimate the proportion of individuals meeting DSM-5 BED criteria who reported being diagnosed

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

3-Month, 12-month, and lifetime DSM-5 and DSM-IV-TR Binge eating disorder prevalence estimates

da Luz et al. [47]

Australia

1995: n = 3001, 2005 n = 3047, 2015: n = 3005

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To examine the prevalence of obesity and comorbid eating disorder behaviours from 2005 to 2015

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of obesity or binge eating, or obesity with comorbid binge eating; prevalence of very strict dieting/fasting; prevalence of purging, or obesity with comorbid purging

Dahlgren et al. [27]

Worldwide

19

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To systematically review the literature on the prevalence of eating disorders (EDs) during the DSM-5 era, and to report rates of point- and lifetime prevalence

Review (Systematic)

Prevalence of ED

Darby et al. [48]

Australia

5366

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To measure the cooccurrence of obesity and eating disorder (ED) behaviours in the South Australian population and assess the change in level from 1995 to 2005

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Population prevalence of comorbid obesity and ED behaviours

de Zwaan et al. [49]

Germany

2460

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To estimate the prevalence and correlates of night eating syndrome (NES) in a large representative German sample using a validated self-report measure (NEQ) as the screening tool

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of night eating disorder

Dubovi et al. [50]

USA

144

College (Adult, All Genders)

To examine the extent to which the Big Five personality traits (openness, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion) would be associated with ED symptoms among college men

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Personality traits and disordered eating symptoms

Duncan et al. [51]

USA

12,337

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To determine whether the prevalence of lifetime and past 12-month DSM-IV eating disorders (ED) diagnoses differed by body mass index category among men and women in a general population sample

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of lifetime and past 12-month DSM-IV eating disorders (ED) diagnoses

Eddy et al. [52]

USA

2231

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To examine the prevalence of ARFID and inter-rater reliability of its diagnostic criteria in a paediatric gastrointestinal sample

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of ARFID

Elran-Barak et al. [53]

USA

2118

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To examine eating disorders in midlife and beyond by comparing frequency of anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge eating disorder (BED), and other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED) among midlife eating disorder treatment-seeking individuals and younger controls, and to compare demographic and eating disorder-related characteristics across diagnoses and age groups

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Frequency of anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge eating disorder (BED), and other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED) among midlife eating disorder treatment-seeking individuals and younger control

Erskine et al. [54]

N/A

N/A

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To present the GBD 2013 burden findings for anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa and explores the methodology underpinning these estimates

Modelling (Statistical)

YLLs, YLDs, and DALYs of ED

Erskine and Whiteford [26]

Worldwide

28

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To assess the available epidemiological data to determine whether BED should be considered for inclusion in global disease burden quantification efforts, such as the Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD)

Review (Narrative)

Global pooled prevalence of BED

Fairweather-Schmidt and Wade [55]

Australia

699

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To determine the prevalence of specific DSM-5 eating disorders, and the proportion of Other Specified Feeding and Eating Disorders (OFSED) relative to threshold ED (TED) diagnoses, to examine whether key variables related to impairment distinguish people with TEDs from OSFED, compared with those without an eating disorder, and to investigate whether risk factors for the two eating disorder groups overlap with respect to both latent risk factors (additive genetic and environmental variance in relation to the threshold and OSFED phenotypes) and specific risk factors

Longitudinal (< 5 years)

Prevalence of DSM-5 eating disorders diagnosis

Feder et al. [56]

Canada

97

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To describe ED presentations in youth presenting for gender dysphoria assessment and treatment

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence and characteristic of eating disorders (EDs)and gender dysphoria (GD) in an adolescent population

Feldman and Meyer [57]

USA

388

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To examine the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) men with eating disorders

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of psychiatric disorders

Fischer et al. [58]

Switzerland

1514

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To increase knowledge about the clinical features of NES in a sample of 1514 young adults aged 18–26 years from the general population who participated in an anonymous Internet survey

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Knowledge about night eating disorder

Fischer et al. [59]

USA

712

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To evaluate the DSM-5 diagnosis of Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID) in children and adolescents with poor eating not associated with body image concerns

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Avoidant/restrictive intake disorder; body image

Flament et al. [60]

Canada

3043

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To estimate jointly the point prevalence of weight and eating disorders in a community sample of adolescents; to investigate psychosocial correlates of thinness, overweight, and obesity, and of full- and subthreshold eating disorders (EDs); and to examine the relationships between weight status and prevalence of EDs

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Point prevalence of DSM-5 AN, BN, BED, PD, and subthreshold AN and BN; weight status; subthreshold AN and BN

Folope et al. [61]

France

130

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To identify specific factors involved in the poor quality of life (QoL) of obese subjects, such as psychological distress (anxiety and depression disorders), eating disorders (EDs), impaired body image perception, and physical health difficulties

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Quality of life (QoL); psychological distress; eating disorders (EDs); impaired body image perception; physical health difficulties

Fornaro et al. [62]

Worldwide

47

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To assess the prevalence and clinical correlates of BD  ED across the lifespan

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of BD and ED

Galmiche et al. [9]

Worldwide

94

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To report the prevalence of the different EDs or total EDs and to study their evolution

Review (Systematic)

Prevalence of all EDs

Gammelmark et al. [63]

Denmark

N/A

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To investigate if the increase in incidence of eating disorders previously shown in Denmark and internationally in secondary healthcare has continued in Denmark until recent years

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Incidence of ED

Gatt et al. [64]

Australia

90

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To investigate the household economic burden of eating disorders and cost-related non-adherence to treatment in Australia

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Household economic burden of eating disorders; adherence to treatment

Gauvin et al. [65]

Canada

1501

Community (Adult, Women)

To estimate the prevalence of eating disorders and maladaptive eating behaviours in a population-based sample and examined the association of maladaptive eating with self-rated physical and mental health

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Observed proportions, observed frequencies [95% confidence intervals (CI)], weighted prevalence estimates (95% CIs), and estimated number of women affected by various eating disorder symptoms and syndromes

Kyu et al. [66]

Worldwide

N/A

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To present global burden disease (GBD) 2017 results for healthy life expectancy (HALE) and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) by age and sex from 1990 to 2017 for 195 countries and territories

Modelling (Statistical)

Prevalence of ED

Goldberg et al. [67]

Canada

190

Inpatient (Young Adult, Women)

To determine the prevalence of child and adolescent females at risk for Avoidant Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID) in a tertiary care paediatric and adolescent gynaecology (PAG) clinic

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of ARFID

Griffiths et al. [68]

Australia and New Zealand

2733

Community (Adult, Men)

To examine the associations of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) use, and of thoughts about using AAS, with body image, eating disorder symptoms, and quality of life among gay and bisexual men living in Australia and New Zealand

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Anabolic steroid use

Hammerle et al. [69]

Germany

1654

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To investigate, for the first time in Germany, adolescent prevalence rates of DSM-5 eating disorders

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of full syndrome adolescent anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder and other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED), partial and subthreshold eating disorders

Harrop et al. [70]

Worldwide

75

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To assess atypical anorexia nervosa (AAN) literature from 2007 to 2020, to investigate: (a) the demographic characteristics of AAN studies, (b) the prevalence of AAN compared with AN, (c) the range of operational definitions of AAN and the implications of these definitions, and (d) the proportion of patients with AAN and AN represented in consecutive admission and referral samples

Systematic Review/ Meta-Analysis (combined)

Prevalence of AN and AAN

Hay and Carriage [71]

Australia

2005: n = 3047, 2008: n = 3034

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To investigate the current 3-month prevalence of eating disorder behaviours of binge eating, restrictive dieting, and extreme weight control methods such as vomiting, and core eating disorder psychopathology of excessive weight and shape concerns, in a representative general population sample of older adolescent and adult indigenous Australians

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of eating disorder features

Hay et al. [72]

Australia

2014: n = 2732, 2015: n = 3005

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To extend previous research on the prevalence, burden and HRQoL of people with eating disorders in the South Australian population in new samples who were surveyed in 2014 and 2015

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

3-Month prevalence of anorexia nervosa-broad, bulimia nervosa and ARFID

Hay et al. [73]

Australia

6041

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To explore the demographic correlates of these disorders, specifically, age, gender, income, and educational attainment and presence of obesity

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Point (3-month) prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa

Heriseanu et al. [74]

Australia

3047

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To report on the distribution of compulsive grazing (CG) and non-compulsive grazing (NCG) in the Australian population, and to assess associations with obesity, ED, and health-related functioning

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Distribution of compulsive grazing (CG) and non-compulsive grazing (NCG)

Hughes et al. [75]

Australia

3270

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To estimate the population prevalence of eating disorder symptoms in relation to weight status in adolescents

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Estimated population prevalence of AN and BN symptoms

Isomaa et al. [76]

Finland

595

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To investigate the prevalence, incidence and development of eating disorders and subclinical eating pathology

Repeated Measure (with follow-up)

Prevalence and eating pathology of DSM-IV eating disorders diagnosis

Jaite et al. [77]

Germany

1404

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To investigate the prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity and outpatient treatment in a sample of German children and adolescents with eating disorders (ED)

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of AN and BN

Javaras et al. [78]

Sweden

2.3 million

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To investigate the sex- and age-specific incidence of healthcare register-recorded anorexia nervosa (AN) and other eating disorders (OED) in a complete birth cohort, and assess whether incidence varies by diagnostic period and (sub-) birth cohort

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Incidence of AN and OED

Jenkins et al. [79]

N/A

N/A

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To provide a summary of research into eating disorder-related quality of life (EDQoL), with a focus on what variables might affect the relationship between ED pathology and QoL

Review (Narrative)

Eating disorder-related quality of life (EDQoL); ED pathology

Kambanis et al. [80]

USA

343

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To clarify the utility of (Amazon’s Mechanical Turk) MTurk as an ED data collection alternative

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

ED psychopathology

Keski-Rahkonen et al. [81]

Finland

2881

Community (Adult, Women)

To report the incidence, prevalence and outcomes of bulimia nervosa using for the first time a nationwide study design

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Incidence, prevalence and outcomes of bulimia nervosa

Kessler et al. [24]

Worldwide

24,124

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To present cross-national BED data and compare with bulimia nervosa (BN) data in the World Health Organization (WHO) World Mental Health Surveys

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of BN and BED; age of onset and persistence; comorbidity with other mental health; role impairment

Kovacic et al. [82]

USA

N/A

Community (Children, All Genders)

To examine the population-wide prevalence of paediatric feeding disorder (PFD) in the US, track this prevalence over several years, and compare the prevalence of PFD among the different databases in children greater than 2 months of age

Longitudinal (> 10 years)

Prevalence of Paediatric Feeding Disorder

Krom et al. [83]

Netherlands

48

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To compare health related quality of life (HRQOL) in infants and children with avoidant restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) to healthy and chronically ill controls

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Health related quality of life (HRQOL)

Kurz et al. [84]

Switzerland

1444

Community (Children, All Genders)

To determine the distribution of early-onset restrictive eating disturbances characteristic of the new DSM-5 diagnosis, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) in middle childhood, as well as to evaluate the screening instrument, Eating Disturbances in Youth-Questionnaire (EDY-Q)

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Early-onset restrictive eating disturbances characteristics of AFID

Lähteenmäki et al. [85]

Finland

1863

Community (Young Adult, All Genders)

To investigate the epidemiology of eating disorders in a population-based sample of young adults

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Lifetime prevalence of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, eating disorder not otherwise specified and any eating disorder; comorbidity; treatment contacts and medication;

Lapid et al. [86]

Worldwide

48

N/A

To review all existing literature on eating disorders in the elderly and provide practical guidelines for clinicians in recognizing and managing eating disorders in the elderly

Review (Narrative)

Cases of eating disorders in people over the age of 50 years; comorbid psychiatry condition; intervention received

Larranaga et al. [87]

Spain

N/A

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To determine the incidence and prevalence of eating disorder and its clinical forms

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Incidence and prevalence of eating disorder

Le et al. [88]

Australia

N/A

Community (Adolescents, Girls)

To evaluate the modelled population cost-effectiveness of cognitive dissonance (CD), a school-based preventive intervention for EDs, in the Australian health care context

Modelling (Statistical)

Cost-effectiveness of cognitive dissonance

Le Grange et al. [89]

USA

13,103

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To examine prevalence and clinical correlates of eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS) in the US population

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence and clinical severity of DSM-IV EDNOS diagnosis

Madden et al. [90]

Australia

101

Inpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To collect nationally representative epidemiological data on early onset eating disorders (EOEDs) in children

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Early-onset eating disorders (EOEDs) rates, clinical features and complications, hospitalisation, psychological comorbidity, and concordance of clinical features with DSM-IV criteria

Mancuso et al. [91]

Australia

117

Outpatient (Adult, All Genders)

To examine the relative prevalence rates of DSM-IV and DSM-5 eating disorder diagnoses in a large sample of patients with a broad range of diagnoses who presented for treatment in a community out-patient setting

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of DSM-IV and DSM-5 eating disorder diagnoses

Mangweth-Matzek et al. [92]

Austria

715

Community (Adult, Women)

To assess eating behaviour and body image in 715 community women aged 40–60 in Innsbruck, Austria

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence and body images of women with eating disorders, subthreshold eating disorders, and normal eating

Mangweth-Matzek et al. [92]

Austria

436

Community (Adult, Women)

To explore the association between menopausal status and eating disorders, including associated pathology, in a large population of women between 40 and 60 years of age

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of eating disorder; body Weight; weight control; eating behaviour; body Image in middle-aged women

Martin et al. [93]

Spain

528

Outpatient (Adult, All Genders)

To analyse the quality of life (QoL) of a broad sample of patients with eating disorders (ED) and to identify potential factors that predict QoL

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Quality of life

Martínez-González et al. [94]

Worldwide

31

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To summarize the incidence of AN using a systematic review and meta-analysis

Systematic Review/ Meta-Analysis (combined)

Incidence of AN

Masheb and White [95]

USA

1897

Community (Adult, Women)

To examine overweight bulimia nervosa (BN) in a community sample of women

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Rate of overweight BN

Meneguzzo et al. [96]

Worldwide

372,256

Community (Mixed Cohort, Girls)

To investigate the available literature regarding lesbian and bisexual women, in order to better understand the occurrence of eating disorder psychopathology in sexual minorities women

Review (Systematic)

Eating disorders symptoms

Micali et al. [97]

UK

5658

Community (Adult, Women)

To investigate the lifetime and 12-month prevalence of EDs and lifetime health service use and to identify childhood, parenting, and personality risk factors

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of eating disorders; risk factors

Midlarsky et al. [98]

USA

245

Community (Adult, Women)

To systematically explore the association between psychological factors found to be correlated with eating disorders in both younger and middle-aged women and eating pathology in later life

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Disordered eating symptomatology; body dissatisfaction; aging-related concern about appearance; sociocultural to be thin; perfectionism; life stress; depression

Mitchison et al. [99]

Australia

1998: n = 3010, 2008: n = 3034

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To examine temporal differences to the demographic correlates of eating disorder behaviours over a 10-year period

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of objective binge eating, extreme dieting, and purging; quality of life

Mitchison et al. [100]

Australia

828

Community (Adult, Women)

To provide a first-time investigation of possible bidirectional relationships between EDs and both health related QoL (HRQoL) and psychological distress (PD)

Longitudinal (> 5 years)

Health-related quality of life; psychological distress

Mitchison et al. [101]

Australia

15,126

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To assess the time trends in binge-eating prevalence and burden over 18 years

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Point (3-month) prevalence of objective binge eating (OBE), health-related quality of life, days out of role, and distress related to OBE

Mitchison et al. [102]

Australia

5191

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To provide the first prevalence report of the full suite of DSM-5 eating disorders in adolescence, and to examine the impact of applying a criterion for clinical significance

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence rates from 1998 to 2008 in binge eating, extreme dieting, and purging; mental health-related quality of life;

Mohler-Kuo et al. [103]

Switzerland

10,038

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To generate updated lifetime and 12-month prevalence estimates for EDs, taking into consideration the three main diagnoses (AN, BN, BED) and two sub-threshold categories (sub-threshold BED and any binge eating), using a large national representative sample in Switzerland

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of AN, BN, BED, sub-threshold ED, any AN, any Binge eating; age of onset; professional help-seeking; mental health outcomes (SMI, social phobia, and quality of life)

Mond et al. [104]

Australia

159

Community (Adult, Women)

To examine impairment in quality of life in a community sample of women with eating disorders recruited as part of an epidemiological study

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Quality of life

Murray et al. [7]

N/A

N/A

N/A

To provide a synthesis of relevant research relating to a multitude of dimensions of disordered eating in males

Review (Narrative)

History and characteristics of male presentations of eating disorders (EDs)

Mustelin et al. [105]

Finland

2825

Community (Mixed Cohort, Girls)

To assess the population prevalence and incidence of binge eating disorder (BED) among young women

Longitudinal (> 10 years)

Prevalence and incidence of binge eating disorder (BED)

Mustelin et al. [106]

Finland

5248

Community (Young Adult, All Genders)

To investigate the prevalence of features of BED and their association with body mass index (BMI) and psychological distress among men and women from the longitudinal community based FinnTwin16 cohort (born 1975–1979)

Longitudinal (< 5 years)

Lifetime prevalence estimates and incidence rates of DSM-5 OSFED and UFED; comorbidity; course of illness

Mustelin et al. [106]

Finland

2825

Community (Adult, Women)

To examine the occurrence, course, and clinical picture of the DSM-5 residual categories ‘Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder’ (OSFED) and ‘Unspecified Feeding or Eating Disorder’ (UFED), to describe potential subtypes, and to evaluate whether the subdivision of the residual category appears meaningful

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Lifetime prevalence of DSM-5 OSFED/UFED diagnosis

Nagata et al. [107]

N/A

N/A

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To review the recent literature on eating disorders, disordered eating behaviors (DEB), and body image dissatisfaction among sexual and gender minority populations, including, but not limited to, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people

Review (Narrative)

ED in sexual minority individuals

Nagl et al. [108]

Germany

3021

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To assess the prevalence, incidence, age-of-onset and diagnostic stability of threshold and subthreshold anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) in the community

Longitudinal (< 5 years)

Lifetime prevalence at baseline and cumulative lifetime incidences of ED

Nicely et al. [109]

USA

173

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To determine the prevalence of ARFID in children and adolescents undergoing day treatment for an eating disorder, and to compare ARFID patients to other eating disorder patients in the same cohort

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of Avoidant/restrictive intake disorder

Nicholls et al. [110]

UK and Ireland

505

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To identify new cases of early-onset eating disorders (< 13 years) presenting to secondary care over 1 year and to describe clinical features, management and 1-year outcomes

Longitudinal (< 5 years)

Clinical features and management of early onset eating disorders

Olsen et al. [111]

Denmark

2509

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To estimate the prevalence of BED in community adolescents and explore the significance of BED at this age by investigating the correlations with concurrent overweight, mental health problems, self-reported impact, and socio-economic risk factors

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of BED; overweight, mental health problems, self-reported impact, and socio-economic risk factors

Pasold and Portilla [112]

USA

507

Inpatient (Young People, Women)

To explore trends among patients presenting to an outpatient multidisciplinary child and adolescent eating disorders program over a period of 14 years (1997–2010)

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of AN, BN and EDNOS

Perez and Warren [113]

USA

20,013

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To examine the relationship between obesity status, binge-eating disorder (BED), and quality of life (QOL) in a large, ethnically diverse community sample of adult men and women

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Obesity status; binge-eating disorder (BED); quality of life (QOL)

Pinhas et al. [114]

Canada

2453

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To document and describe the incidence and age-specific presentation of early-onset restrictive eating disorders in children across Canada

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Incidence and age-specific presentation of early-onset restrictive eating disorders

Preti et al. [115]

Europe

21,425

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To investigate the prevalence of non-psychotic mental disorders in six European countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain), using a new version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Lifetime estimated prevalence of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, sub-threshold binge eating disorder, and any binge eating

Qian et al. [25]

Worldwide

33

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To update the prevalence of eating disorders in the general population before 2021 and to analyse the distribution characteristics at different times and in different regions and sexes, as well as the diagnostic criteria

Systematic Review/ Meta-Analysis (combined)

Prevalence of ED

Reas and Ro [116]

Norway

N/A

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To investigate time trends in the age- and sex-specific incidence of healthcare detected anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) from 2010 to 2016

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Incidence of AN and BN

Ribeiro et al. [117]

Portugal

805

College (Adult, All Genders)

To assess the prevalence of BED among college students using a two-stage design

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of binge eating disorder

Rozzell et al. [118]

USA

4524

Community (Children, All Genders)

To report the prevalence rates of anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge eating disorder (BED), and other specified feeding and eating disorders (OSFED) in addition to a global “any ED” diagnosis, using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition) (DSM-5) criteria among a US representative sample of children aged 9 and 10 years

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence rates of anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge eating disorder (BED), other specified feeding and eating disorders (OSFED), and a global “any ED” diagnosis

Runfola et al. [119]

USA

1636

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To compare students with and without NES on eating disorder symptomatology, quality of life, and mental health, while exploring the role of binge eating in associations

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Eating disorder symptomatology; quality of life; mental health

Santomauro et al. [120]

Worldwide

54

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To estimate the prevalence and burden of binge-eating disorder and other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED) globally and present a case for their inclusion in global burden of disease (GBD)

Modelling (Statistical)

Prevalence and burden (YLLs, YLDs, DALYs) of binge-eating disorder and OSFED

Shu et al. [121]

Australia

704

Inpatient (Young People, Men)

To provide knowledge about the clinical presentation of eating disorders in young males

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence and clinical characteristics of ED in young males

Silen et al. [122]

Finland

1347

Community (Young Adult, Women)

To assess the detection, treatment and outcomes of DSM‐5 eating disorders in a nationwide community setting

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Detection, treatment and outcomes of DSM‐5 eating disorders

Smink et al. [123]

Netherlands

2230

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To establish the prevalence and severity of eating disorders based on the new DSM-5 criteria in a community cohort of adolescents

Longitudinal (< 5 years)

Prevalence of DSM-5 eating disorders

Sparti et al. [124]

Australia

2298

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To estimate the prevalence of disordered eating (DE) among Australian adolescents and examine associations with clinical mental health problems, problems with functioning, and help received

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of Disordered eating and lifetime eating disorder; Clinical mental health problem; problem with functioning; help seeking

Stoving et al. [125]

Denmark

605

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To compare remission rates in purging and non-purging females with anorexia nervosa (AN) and eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS) in a large retrospective single centre cohort

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Remission, Purging behaviour

Streatfeild et al. [126]

USA

N/A

N/A

To estimate 1-year costs of eating disorders in the United States (U.S.) from a societal perspective, including the costs to the U.S. health system, individual and family productivity costs, lost wellbeing, and other societal economic costs, by setting and payer

Review (Other)

One-year cost of ED

Striegel-Moore et al. [127]

USA

5522

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To examine gender differences in prevalence of eating disorder symptoms including body image concerns (body checking or avoidance), binge eating, and inappropriate compensatory behaviours

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of eating disorder symptoms in women and men

Striegel Weissman and Rosselli [128]

N/A

N/A

N/A

To offer an update of the research literature published since 2011 in three research areas that undergirded the researchers' collaborative research project: unmet treatment needs, cost of illness, and cost-effectiveness of treatments

Review (Narrative)

Prevalence of ED

Swanson et al. [129]

USA

10,123

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To examine the prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in a large, representative sample of US adolescents

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Lifetime prevalence estimates of AN, BN, and BED; age of onset; comorbidity with other mental disorder; social impairment; lifetime suicidality

Tannous et al. [130]

Australia

2977

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To understand economic and other costs of EDs at the community level

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Economic cost of BN and BED

Tholin et al. [131]

Sweden

21,741

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To assess the prevalence of night eating (NE) and associated symptoms in a population-based sample of Swedish twins

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence of night eating disorder

Treasure et al. [132]

N/A

N/A

N/A

To describe the epidemiology, diagnosis, screening and prevention, aetiology, treatment and quality of life of patients with AN

Review (Narrative)

Prevalence of AN

Udo and Grilo [133]

USA

36,306

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To provide lifetime and 12-month prevalence estimates of DSM-5–defined anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge-eating disorder (BED) from the 2012–2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Prevalence estimates of lifetime AN, BN, and BED

Vallance et al. [134]

New Zealand

214

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To examine the impact of eating disorder psychopathology on quality of life (QOL) within a community sample

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Eating disorder psychopathology; quality of life

van Hoeken and Hoek [135]

Worldwide

N/A

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To review the recent literature on the burden of eating disorders in terms of mortality, disability, quality of life, economic cost, and family burden, compared with people without an eating disorder

Review (Narrative)

Mortality, disability, costs, quality of life, and family burden

Ward et al. [136]

USA

100,000

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To model the individual-level disease dynamics of ED from birth to age 40 years and to estimate the association of increased treatment coverage with ED-related mortality

Modelling (Statistical)

Age-specific 12 month and lifetime prevalence of ED; number of deaths per 100,000 general populations by age 40

Watson et al. [137]

Norway

77,267

Community (Adult, Women)

To internally validate previously published rates of remission, continuation and incidence of broadly defined eating disorders during pregnancy in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort (MoBa) at the Norwegian Institute of Public Health

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Remission, continuation and incidence of eating disorders during early pregnancy

Watson et al. [138]

USA

26,002

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To document trends in disordered eating behaviours over the span of 14 years using a population-based sample to identify trends in disordered eating for heterosexual, bisexual, gay, and lesbian youth separately for males and females in Massachusetts

Longitudinal (> 10 years)

Prevalence and trends of 30-days use of diet pills and purging to lose weight by sexual orientation and sex

Watson et al. [139]

USA

55,597

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To explore the trends in unhealthy weight control behaviour (UWCB) among sexually active sexual minority youth identified using a measure of sexual behaviour

Longitudinal (> 10 years)

Unhealthy weight control behaviours

Weigel et al. [140]

Germany

218

Community (Mixed Cohort, Girls)

To examine the association between disorder specific factors, comorbidity and health related quality of life (HRQoL) in anorexia nervosa (AN)

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Comorbidity and health related quality of life (HRQoL) in AN

Winkler et al. [141]

Worldwide

7

Community (Adult, All Genders)

To explore the differences in health-related quality of life (HRQoL) between AN, BN, EDNOS and BED, measured by the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36)

Systematic Review/ Meta-Analysis (combined)

Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) between AN, BN, EDNOS and BED

Wong and Hay [142]

Australia

6041

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To investigate the age of onset of EDBs and their enduring impact on mental health related quality of life (MHRQoL) and role impairment in a representative community sample

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Age of onset of EDBs; mental health related quality of life

Wu et al. [143]

N/A

N/A

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To reveal the burden of eating disorders at the global, regional and national levels using the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study 2017 data

Modelling (Statistical)

Prevalence and disability-adjusted life years of ED

Zeiler et al. [144]

Austria

3610

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To investigate the prevalence of eating disorder (ED) risk as well as associated psychopathology and health-related quality of life (HrQoL) in a large population sample of Austrian adolescents

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Health-related quality of life (HRQoL)

Zerwas et al. [145]

Denmark

966,141

Inpatient and Outpatient (Adult, All Genders)

To characterize the incidence rates and cumulative incidence of anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS), and examine associations among eating disorder diagnoses, suicide attempts, and mortality

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Incidence rates and cumulative incidence of AN, BN, and EDNOS; suicide attempts; mortality

Zerwas et al. [146]

Denmark

930,977

Community (Mixed Cohort, All Genders)

To investigate associations between autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases and eating disorders in youth in a nationwide, population-based cohort

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases; ED diagnosis

Zickgraf et al. [147]

USA

22

Outpatient (Young People, All Genders)

To describe the clinical characteristics of children, adolescents, and young adults diagnosed with the selective/neophobic presentation of ARFID in a non-eating disorder-focused outpatient setting, including demographics (age, gender), psychological and medical comorbidities, age of onset, symptom trajectory (history of adding or eliminating foods), and qualitative descriptions of psychosocial interference described by patients and families, and to explore the prevalence of each of the four components of Criterion A for ARFID (weight loss/difficulty gaining weight, nutritional deficiency, supplement use, and psychosocial interference) using strict and more expansive definitions of the three weight/nutrition criteria

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Clinical characteristics of avoidant restrictive intake disorder

Zulig et al. [148]

USA

2242

Community (Adolescents, All Genders)

To investigate the relationship between selected disordered eating behaviours and self-reported sexual minority status (gay/lesbian, bisexual, and unsure) among a representative sample of high school adolescents

Cross-sectional (Correlational)

Eating behaviours by sexual orientation