Table 16 Other e-technology (including mobile apps and text messaging interventions) for emerging adults (18–25)

Cerea et al. [74]

RCT

Female university students at high-risk of body image disorders

n = 25 immediate use of app (iApp)

n = 25 delayed use of app (dApp)

GGBI Positive Body Image App: cognitive-behavioural exercises to challenge maladaptive beliefs associated with body dissatisfaction and body image disorders. Participants had to complete 3 min of the app each day immediately for 16 consecutive days

Delayed use: started using app 16 days after immediate group, for 16 consecutive days (3 min/day)

EDI-3, DASS-21, QDC (to assess body dissatisfaction)

Significant group (iApp vs. dApp) x Time (baseline vs. first 16 days) interaction on body dissatisfaction and body dysmorphic disorder symptoms (medium effect sizes), where iApp group showed greater decrease from baseline to first 16 days compared to dApp group. Pertaining to ED symptoms (EDI-3), no significant Group x Time interaction was detected, however, some reductions (not significant) emerged with respect to desire to be thin and for the risk of developing EDs in iApp and dApp groups following GGBI use

Rodgers et al. [75]

RCT

Young adults from high schools, youth organizations, or university

n = 237

BodiMojo: mobile phone app with (1) intervention messages sent twice daily; (2) mood tracking and emotion regulation; (3) gratitude journaling. Intervention messages were based on self-compassion, media literacy, healthy lifestyle-related content. The daily intervention messages came in the form of an affirmation, a behavioral tip, or psychoeducation, and some contained a link to a quiz or an audio meditation

PACS, SCS, BES (appearance esteem subscale), BI-AAQ

In comparison to the control group, participants who used the BodiMojo intervention reported improved appearance esteem and self-compassion. In contrast, significant effects were not found for body image flexibility. No improvements in appearance comparison or mood

Fioravanti et al. [76]

RCT

Young adult women

n = 41 Body Positive profiles

n = 41 Fitspiration profiles

n = 40 neutral profiles

Participants were asked to follow their assigned profiles (on Instagram, created by researchers) for 28 days; they saw 1 new post/day and 3 Instagram stories/day

Body Positive profile: had to follow and view images related to hashtags including: #BodyPositive, #BoPo, #ShowUs, #normalizeNormalBodies, #BodyPositive, #loveyourbody

Fitspiration profile: had to follow and view images related to hashtags including: #fitspiration, #fitmodel, #fitmotivation, #body transformation #fitspogirl; fitspiration = sustaining or improving health and fitness

Neutral profiles: had to follow and view images related to hashtags including: #animals, #nature, #travel, #landscape

C-VAS (state mood and body satisfaction), SACS, PACS, MBSRQ-AS

Daily exposure to body positive images was associated with the highest rate of growth of positive mood and body satisfaction (vs. those exposed to fitspiration or neutral content). Daily exposure to fitspiration images was associated with the highest rates of growth of negative mood and appearance comparison (vs. those exposed to body positive images). There was no difference in the growth of negative mood and body satisfaction between participants exposed daily to fitspiration and neutral content

Smith et al. [77]

Open trial

Female undergraduate students with high levels of body checking behaviours

n = 44

5 text messaging interventions for body checking (1/day for 5 days): (1) Psychoeducation- “think of a time in your life when you were checking your body a lot… Reflect on how you felt”; (2) Visualization- “Imagine yourself standing in front of a mirror wearing only a swimsuit… how is your mood/feelings?”; (3) Behavioural- “identify 2 checking urges that you will attempt to resist by using deep breathing”; (4) Cognitive- “What could you say to yourself next time you have an unwanted urge to check?”; (5) Cognitive dissonance- “What would you tell your friend about her checking behaviours?”

BCCS, BSQ, BIAQ, BCQ, SATAQ-3, Body Checking Behaviours measure (number of times per day engaged in weighing themselves, feeling thighs for fatness, sucking in stomach, feeling/pinching stomach to measure fatness, comparing body to others, checking body size in mirror, checking fat for jiggling, checking to see if thighs spread while sitting)

In total, 1804 text messages were sent to the 44 participants. Pretest to post-test analyses found healthy improvements (significantly decreased scores) in BSQ, BCQ, BIAQ, BCCS, SATAQ-3 (large to medium effect sizes) number of attitudes and behaviours related to body checking were positively impacted. Body checking behaviours increased within each day (highest checking behaviours at night) but decreased across the 5-day intervention period. Overall, brief intervention led to reduced body checking behaviours and led to higher body satisfaction