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Table 2 Details of studies that used tactile-less embodiment methods in non-ED populations

From: Mirror, mirror, on the wall: During pandemics, how can self-perception research in people with eating disorders happen at all?

Authors

Research question(s)

Participants

Embodiment process and measures

Main findings

Carey et al. [14]

How does simply observing a mannequin body from a first-person perspective affect subjective embodiment?

Experiment 1

N = 40; females; Age: M = 20.15 years

Experiment 2

N = 40; females; Age: M = 18.98

Location: UK

Participants observed a mannequin body via a head-mounted display from a first-person perspective

Embodiment measured via a subjective embodiment questionnaire

40% of participants experienced embodiment

Estudillo and Bindemann [21]

Can gaze-contingent mirror-feedback from unfamiliar faces alter self-recognition?

N = 13; females; Age: M = 22.0 years 0

Location: UK

Participants’ eye movements were mimicked by an onscreen stimulation face

Enfacement measured via a subjective enfacement questionnaire and objective self-other discrimination morphing task

Participants reported a subjective experience of embodiment, but the stimulation did not affect their perceptual self-representations as measured by self-other discrimination morphing task

Ma et al. [23]

Does enfacing a virtual face also include the emotion of the face?

N = 20 (9 females); Age: M = 22.30 years

Location: Netherlands

Participants saw a virtual face moving synchronously with their own within a VR setting

Enfacement measured via a subjective enfacement questionnaire and Including Other in the Self scale

Enfacement illusion was successfully evoked in a VR environment (without tactile stimulation)

Participants adopted the expressed emotion (i.e., enfacing a happy face improved mood)

Martinaud et al. [16]

Does visual capture without tactile stimulation by a rubber hand induce body ownership in hemiplegic patients?

N = 31 hemiplegic patients (16 females); Age: M = 68.35 years (calculated by the authors of this review as there was no information provided by the original authors)

Location: UK

Hemiplegic patients observed a rubber hand for 15 s that was placed on a pillow (in a congruent position as their own hidden paralyzed hand)

Embodiment measured via subjective rubber hand ownership questions and objective lesion analysis

A majority of the patients experienced strong ownership over the rubber hand (without tactile stimulation)

Serino et al. [22]

Does experiencing visuo-motor synchrony (without tactile stimulation) with a VR avatar's face make participants merge the face into their own face?

Experiment 1

N = 24; females; Age: M = 23.00 years

Experiment 2

N = 16; females; Age: M = 24.00 years

Location: Switzerland

Participants observed an avatar’s face moving in synchrony and asynchrony with their own face via 3D VR

Enfacement measured via a subjective enfacement questionnaire and objective self-face recognition morphing task

Participants tended to recognise the avatar’s face as their own after synchronous exposure, which was assessed by both subjective and objective measures

  1. VR Virtual Reality