Authors | Research question(s) | Participants | Embodiment process and measures | Main findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
Carey et al. [14] | How does simply observing a mannequin body from a first-person perspective affect subjective embodiment? | Experiment 1 N = 40; females; Age: M = 20.15 years Experiment 2 N = 40; females; Age: M = 18.98 Location: UK | Participants observed a mannequin body via a head-mounted display from a first-person perspective Embodiment measured via a subjective embodiment questionnaire | 40% of participants experienced embodiment |
Estudillo and Bindemann [21] | Can gaze-contingent mirror-feedback from unfamiliar faces alter self-recognition? | N = 13; females; Age: M = 22.0 years 0 Location: UK | Participants’ eye movements were mimicked by an onscreen stimulation face Enfacement measured via a subjective enfacement questionnaire and objective self-other discrimination morphing task | Participants reported a subjective experience of embodiment, but the stimulation did not affect their perceptual self-representations as measured by self-other discrimination morphing task |
Ma et al. [23] | Does enfacing a virtual face also include the emotion of the face? | N = 20 (9 females); Age: M = 22.30 years Location: Netherlands | Participants saw a virtual face moving synchronously with their own within a VR setting Enfacement measured via a subjective enfacement questionnaire and Including Other in the Self scale | Enfacement illusion was successfully evoked in a VR environment (without tactile stimulation) Participants adopted the expressed emotion (i.e., enfacing a happy face improved mood) |
Martinaud et al. [16] | Does visual capture without tactile stimulation by a rubber hand induce body ownership in hemiplegic patients? | N = 31 hemiplegic patients (16 females); Age: M = 68.35 years (calculated by the authors of this review as there was no information provided by the original authors) Location: UK | Hemiplegic patients observed a rubber hand for 15 s that was placed on a pillow (in a congruent position as their own hidden paralyzed hand) Embodiment measured via subjective rubber hand ownership questions and objective lesion analysis | A majority of the patients experienced strong ownership over the rubber hand (without tactile stimulation) |
Serino et al. [22] | Does experiencing visuo-motor synchrony (without tactile stimulation) with a VR avatar's face make participants merge the face into their own face? | Experiment 1 N = 24; females; Age: M = 23.00 years Experiment 2 N = 16; females; Age: M = 24.00 years Location: Switzerland | Participants observed an avatar’s face moving in synchrony and asynchrony with their own face via 3D VR Enfacement measured via a subjective enfacement questionnaire and objective self-face recognition morphing task | Participants tended to recognise the avatar’s face as their own after synchronous exposure, which was assessed by both subjective and objective measures |